Ⅰ 急求一份蘋果公司的發展史等 英文介紹!!
不知道你需要蘋果哪個階段的發展史?先看看這些吧,希望有用。
Apple Inc., formerly Apple Computer, Inc., is a multinational corporation that creates consumer electronics, computer software, and commercial servers. Apple's core proct lines are the iPad, iPhone, iPod music player, and Macintosh computer line-up. Founders Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak effectively created Apple Computer on April 1, 1976, with the release of the Apple I, and incorporated the company on January 3, 1977, in Cupertino, California. For more than two decades, Apple Computer was predominantly a manufacturer of personal computers, including the Apple II, Macintosh, and Power Mac lines, but it faced rocky sales and low market share ring the 1990s. Jobs, who had been ousted from the company in 1985, returned to become Apple's CEO in 1996 after his company NeXT was bought by Apple Inc., and he brought with him a new corporate philosophy of recognizable procts and simple design. With the introction of the successful iPod music player in 2001, Apple established itself as a leader in the consumer electronics instry, dropping "Computer" from its name. The latest era of phenomenal success for the company has been in the iOS range of procts that began with the iPhone, iPod Touch and now iPad. As of 2011[update], Apple is the largest technology firm in the world, with annual revenues of more than $60 billion
Ⅱ 英語的發展史
盧恩語(Futhark)→古英語(即盎格魯-撒克遜語)(Old English、Anglo-Saxon)→英國英語(English)
1.英語的發展要追溯到公元410年,羅馬人離開不列顛之後,日耳曼部族包括盎格魯、薩克遜開始湧入。
2.羅馬人走了,沒有留下他們使用的拉丁語。反倒是實用的盎格魯薩克遜語言進入到當地人的語言,帶去了新的詞彙。
3.公元597年,基督教傳入英國。基督教的流行,使當地人更容易接受拉丁文的怪字,如「martyr(烈士)」, 「bishop」和 「font」。
4.公元800年,丹麥人入侵英國。維京語言給英語帶來了好戰意味明顯的詞彙,英語中共有2000個詞彙源於維京人。
5.1066年,征服者威廉入侵不列顛,帶來了來自海峽對岸的法語。法語成為了上層階級與官方事務用語。總的來講,英文大概從諾曼語中吸收了一萬多個單詞。
6.1337 年,英法百年戰爭開始。在這116年的爭斗中,英語吸收了法語中的戰爭詞彙,如「armies」, 「navies」 及 「soldiers「, 並逐步取代法語,成為當權者的語言。
7.100年之後誕生了莎士比亞。字典告訴我們,莎士比亞大概發明了2000多個新字,包括好用的詞彙還有很多當時的流行詞彙。
8.1611年出現了詹姆士王版聖經。新聖經使用了所有人都能理解的語言,使得聖經中的教訓不再是「王宮粉牆上」的文字,而是手中的小冊,並有傳教士在每間教堂宣傳。
9.17世紀,科學得到了迅速的發展。皇家學院的科學家們一開始用拉丁文溝通,後來發現其實用自己的母語英文會更簡潔。新事物的發現產生了許多新的詞彙。
10.在日不落帝國迅速擴張時期,英語從殖民地不同的語言中吸收了許多新的詞彙與表達。據統計,在1815年到1914年期間,新變種的英文得以在世界各地發展。
11.隨著英文向四面八方擴張,詞典編纂者也隨之出現,這些人想要解決拼字不統一的無政府狀態。於是約翰遜博士花了九年編成了一本英文字典,促成了拼寫的統一。
12.英語由古代從丹麥等斯堪的納維亞半島以及德國、荷蘭及周邊移民至不列顛群島的盎格魯、撒克遜以及朱特部落的白人所說的語言演變而來,並通過英國的殖民活動傳播到了世界各地。
13.在19至20世紀,英國以及美國在文化、經濟、軍事、政治和科學在世界上的領先地位使得英語成為一種國際語言。如今,許多國際場合都使用英語做為溝通媒介。
古英語受低地日耳曼語影響很大,比如動詞,基本詞彙,發音,復合詞結構,形態變化很復雜,但是與現代的標准德語還是有很大的區別。
現代英語並非起源或演變自羅曼語族亦或是法語,但是數萬現代英語詞彙,很大一部分來自法語,約5萬英語詞彙與法語接近甚至是完全相同,現代英語和多數現代歐洲語言都改用字母拼寫。
現代英語所使用的拼寫字母,也是完全借用了26個字母。所謂「英語字母」,就是古羅馬人在書寫時所使用的拼寫字母。
英語開始以拉丁字母作為拼寫系統大約是在公元六世紀盎格魯撒克遜時代。
英語-網路
Ⅲ English的發展歷史
早期日耳曼人四支部落(盎格魯族、撒克遜族、朱特族和弗里西族)移民到英格蘭,英語就是從他們的語言中變化繼承下來。據《盎格魯撒克遜編年史》記載,公元449年左右,不列顛群島國王伏提庚(Vortigern)邀請「盎格魯親戚們」來幫助他對抗皮克特人,於是他賜予盎格魯族東南部的領土作為回報。隨後他又進一步尋求支援,撒克遜族、盎格魯族與朱特族人便紛紛前來。《編年史》記載,最終這些「移民」建立了七個王國:諾森伯利亞、麥西亞、東盎格利亞、肯特、埃塞克斯、蘇塞克斯、威塞克斯。
日爾曼人入侵後,統治了當地的凱爾特語民族,本地語言主要於蘇格蘭、威爾士、康瓦耳與愛爾蘭存活了下來。這些入侵者的語言逐漸形成了「古英語」,與近代弗里西語極為相像。English(英格蘭人、英語)、England(英格蘭)和East Anglia(東盎格利亞)這三個詞是分別從描繪盎格魯族的詞彙發展而來:Englisc、 Angelcynn、Englaland。
公元九世紀,斯堪的納維亞人大規模侵入英國北部。九世紀末,入侵者幾乎佔領了整個英國的東半部。斯堪的納維亞人說的是北日爾曼語。北日爾曼語和西日爾曼語的差別不是很懸殊。斯堪的納維亞人入侵的結果使大量斯堪的納維亞語(以古諾斯語Old Norse為代表)的詞彙進入了古英語的詞彙。古諾斯語和古英語有很多同義詞彙,結果古諾斯語詞在英語詞彙里往往取古英語詞而代之。
1066年諾曼征服後三百年內,英格蘭的國王只講法語。因此一大批法語詞彙進入了古英語,古英語本身也失去了大部分曲折變化,形成中古英語。1500年左右的母音大推移將中古英語變形為近代英語。古英語最著名的文學作品是《貝奧武夫》,中古英語則是《坎特伯里故事集》。
近代英語在莎士比亞所處的時期開始繁榮,一些學者將之分為早期近代英語與後期近代英語,分界線為1800年左右。隨著不列顛對全世界大部分地區的佔領和殖民,當地語言也很大程度上影響了英語的發
一、古英語時期——公元449年至1100年
古英語時期共有四種主要方言:
(1)諾森伯里亞方言——洪伯河(the Humber)以北的方言;
(2)梅爾西亞方言——界乎洪伯河與泰晤士河之間的英國中部地區的方言;
(3)肯特(Kentish)方言——居住在英國東南部地區的朱待人的方言;
(4)西撤克遜方言——泰晤士河以南的方言。諾森伯里亞和悔爾西亞這兩種方言又合稱盎格里亞方言,即盎格魯人居住地區的方言。
二、中古英語時期——公元1100年至1500年
三、現代英語(Modern English,Mod E.)時期——公元1500年至今;
現代英語時期又細分為:
(1)早期現代英語時期Early ModernEnglish period——公元1500年至1700年;
(2)後期現代英語時期LateModernEnglish period——公元1700年至當前。
Ⅳ 火車發展史的英文介紹
China Railway began in the late Qing Dynasty. However, the Qing government corruption, conservative, authoritarian, but regulation of ancestors from, refused to accept new things. They built railways, the application of steam as a "淫巧often associated with", that will repair the railway "I lost dangers, harm I Tin House, hindered my feng shui", which stubbornly refused to build the railway.
July 3, 1876, from Britain, the United States of collusion by British agents in China - Jardines - ostensibly carrying the construction of the Qing government to Shanghai from Wusong an "unusual road," the land without permission in China China built the first business of the railway line is completed, the opening of the Shanghai Wusong the. Subsequently, the Qing government of the two silver 285000, at 3 times the redemption payment and the removal of the railway.
1879, Westernization Group leader Li order to Tangshan Kaiping coal mine to Tianjin, Tangshan奏請 the construction of the railway Beitang. The Qing government to railway locomotive "smoke禾稼injury, vibration sleep hills," he decided to shorten the rail, only repair a section of the Tangshan Coal to Xu, Xu蘆台Coal to inter-cut canal, connecting薊運河to achieve Beitang Haikou; sleep in order to avoid rolling hills shock decision by horse traction vehicles.
However, using horse traction vehicles can not play should be the effectiveness of the railway, in 1881 the opening of the railway Tang Xu, the Chinese workers, then an engineer with the British payment of the several design drawings, the boiler and the mine shaft lifting frame the trough of the old iron and other materials, the success of a trial-type 0-3-0 steam locomotive. This is the history of China's first locomotive manufacturing.
Another argument is that China's first train a Tang Xu then Chief Engineer of the British rail thin model with the wife of George Stevenson of the famous British-made steam "No. rocket" and caused by, and It is named "China's No. rocket." But the Chinese workers in locomotive engraved on both sides of the one-stop, so they call it "The Dragon" Train.
Because photos can clearly see the Rocket of China (Chinese rockets) and long word mark, so future generations have been identified this is the first Chinese-made motorcycles. However, left over from the picture we can see that this locomotive design specifications, manufacturing well, how can and from the waste material to create a "monster", etc. view?
In 2003, the British study of Chinese railway彼得克拉什Jindal found a "China No. rocket" group photo. By comparison, one can see this photo on the "China No. rocket" and the picture kept on "China's No. rockets" are obviously different: the chimney of a small locomotive and the rates high, a thick and short; locomotive both sides of the tank before a shoe-shaped block, a; driver's cab, a tag is the № 1, a circular marker is ... ... as a result of old age, lack of information, the first Chinese-made motorcycles mystery remains uncertain and can not be the truth.
China Railway Museum a collection of Taiwan and China's oldest locomotive, since it has a great body of the "0" character, it is then it is referred to as the "0" Train. Research experts concluded that after the opening of the railway Tang Xu, "in 1882, and from the United Kingdom to purchase two small 0-2-0 type (only two pairs of drive wheels) locomotive (called 0), and to participate in running." Were considered to be China The first imports of a motorcycle.
Since 1881, Tang Xu railway built in 1911 to the fall of the Qing government for 30 years, is the first stage of China's railway. This stage, the Qing government and internally as a result of Westernization Group recommends that people with lofty ideals and promote the continuous, not only changing the construction of the railway will "lose my dangers, harm I Tin House, hindered my feng shui" of understanding, but accept the lessons of the war a failure and further strengthening the understanding of Haiphong to the "opening of the railway may be the remedy for the military" finally determine the policy of railway construction, the establishment of the railway company, began planning to build a railway. 30 years, China's 18 provinces and cities in the construction of the railway of 9137.2 kilometers. Some of these government-run railway, some commercial, some government officials and businessmen co-organized, there is a part of Sino-foreign joint, or simply repair is a foreigner.
The wheel of history to enter the Republic of China, the railway construction has changed the situation. Interim government in Nanjing in the early days of its establishment with the Ministry of Communications, also has set up the Chinese Railway Association and China National Railway Company. In 1928 from the beginning of the ruling KMT government in Nanjing, in his long rule of more than 20 years, although the development of a large-scale development of the railway project and the Ministry of Railways had set up the national railway undertaking unified management, but does not build the railway. Lack of the national railway branch less dry conditions, poor people in the country decline, the case of years of war has not changed. In 1949, the Chinese locomotive may have the 4069 Statistics of Taiwan, respectively, from nine countries, more than 30 factories, as many as 198 kinds of motorcycle models, it is no wonder China is known as a "locomotive State Museum." According to the information available now, with imports from the United Kingdom in 1892 to create the Double, Bershire type (type than Shell) and other locomotive.
翻譯:
中國有鐵路始於清朝末期。然而清政府腐敗、保守、專制,唯祖宗之規是從,不肯接受新生事物。他們把修建鐵路、應用蒸汽機車視為「奇技淫巧」,認為修鐵路會「失我險阻,害我田廬,妨礙我風水」,因而頑固地拒絕修建鐵路。
1876年7月3日,由英、美合謀,由英國在華的代理人——怡和洋行——背著清政府詭稱修建從吳淞到上海的一條「尋常馬路」,擅自在中國的土地上修建的中國第一條營業性鐵路上海吳淞鐵路建成通車了。隨後,清政府出銀28.5萬兩,分3次交款贖回這條鐵路並予以拆除。
1879年,洋務派首領李鴻章為了將唐山開平煤礦的煤炭運往天津,奏請修建唐山至北塘的鐵路。清政府以鐵路機車「煙傷禾稼,震動寢陵」為由,決定將鐵路縮短,僅修唐山至胥各庄一段,胥各庄至蘆台間開鑿運河,連接薊運河,以達北塘海口;為避免機車震動寢陵,決定由騾馬牽引車輛。
然而用騾馬牽引車輛根本不能發揮出鐵路應有的效用,1881年唐胥鐵路通車時,中國工人憑借時任工程師的英國人金達的幾份設計圖紙,採用礦場起重鍋爐和豎井架的槽鐵等舊材料,試製成功了一台0-3-0型的蒸汽機車。這就是中國歷史上製造的第一台機車。
另有一種說法是,中國第一輛火車是當時任唐胥鐵路總工程師的英人薄內的夫人仿照喬治·斯蒂文森製造的英國著名的蒸汽機車「火箭號」而造成的,並把它命名為「中國火箭號」。可是中國工人卻在機車兩側各刻一條龍,於是就把它叫做「龍號」機車。
由於照片上可以清楚地看到Rocket of China(中國火箭)的字樣和龍的標記,所以後人一直認定這就是中國製造的第一台機車。但是從遺留下來的圖片中我們可以看到這台機車設計規范、製造精良,怎麼能和由廢舊料製造的「怪物」等而觀之?
2003年,研究中國鐵路的英國人彼得·克拉什發現了一張金達與「中國火箭號」合影的照片。通過比較,可以看出這張照片上的「中國火箭號」與中國保存的那張照片上「中國火箭號」有明顯地不同之處:機車的煙囪一個細而高,一個粗而矮;機車兩側水櫃前,一個有鞋形塊,一個沒有;司機室上,一個是№1的標記,一個是圓形標記……由於年代的久遠,資料的缺少,中國製造的第一台機車之謎依然撲朔迷離,一時難以真相大白。
目前中國鐵道博物館收藏著一台中國現存最古老的機車,由於它機身上有一個大大的「0」字,人們便把它稱為「0號」機車。專家考證後認為唐胥鐵路通車後,「1882年,又從英國購來兩台小型的0—2—0式(只有兩對動輪)機車(稱0號),參加運行。」被認為是中國進口的第一輛機車。
自1881年建成唐胥鐵路至 1911年清政府垮台的30多年間,是中國鐵路的首創階段。這一階段內,清政府由於洋務派和國內有志之士的不斷建議和提倡,不但改變了修建鐵路會「失我險阻,害我田廬,妨礙我風水」的認識,而且接受戰爭失敗的教訓,又進而從加強海防上認識到「鐵路開通可為軍事上之補救」,終於確定興建鐵路的方針,建立鐵路公司,開始有籌劃地修建鐵路了。30多年時間里,中國的18個省市修築了鐵路計9137.2公里。這些鐵路有的是官辦,有的是商辦,有的是官商合辦,還有一部分是中外合辦,或者乾脆就是外國人修的。
歷史的車輪駛進中華民國,鐵路建設的狀況有所改觀。南京臨時政府在其成立之初設有交通部,又先後成立中華全國鐵路協會和中國鐵路總公司。從1928年開始執政的南京國民黨政府,在其長達20餘年的統治中,雖然制訂了大規模發展鐵路的計劃,並一度設立鐵道部統管全國鐵路事業,但建成的鐵路並不多。全國鐵路缺干少支的狀況,在國衰民窮、連年戰爭的情況下,一直未得改變。到1949年,中國可統計的機車有4069台,分別出自9個國家的30多家工廠,機車型號多達198種,難怪人稱中國是「萬國機車博物館」。據現在可以查到的資料,從英國進口的有1892年製造的Double,Bershire型(比謝爾式)機車等。
Ⅳ 英國詩歌發展史英語介紹
英國是一個在北大西洋的駭浪中顛簸的小島國,其面積僅相當於美國的六十分之一。然而,它卻為現代世界(至少是西方世界)奠定了好幾塊基石:英國是最早實現工業化的國家,成為近代大工業的開路先鋒,從而把全世界推進到工業時代;英國也是最早實現資產階級政治變革的國家,為西方的資本主義民主制度樹立了樣板;英國人求實、理性和科學的精神則奠定了人類現代科學思維的基礎,豐富了人類的精神寶庫。在詩歌領域,英國人同樣有理由自豪:英國詩的深刻性和多樣性歷來為世人稱道;英詩發展過程中的幾個高潮——16世紀後期的文藝復興詩歌、19世紀初的浪漫主義詩歌、20世紀上半葉的現代主義詩歌——成為世界詩歌交響曲中的華彩樂章;而以莎士比亞為代表的一群優秀的英國詩人,則能站在世界詩歌天才的前列而毫無愧色。
在世界各民族中,英國人向以穩重著稱。它注重實際而不耽於空想,長於寬容而不愛走極端。這樣的民族心理和文化素質使其文學的發展沿著歷史長河緩緩而行,中間沒有被切斷和被阻隔之感。傳統與變革和諧地交織,一方面以內容與形式的不斷革新推動文學的發展,另一方面又以濃厚的傳統意識制約著每一次變革,使之不致成為脫韁野馬。在傳統與變革的沖突中,走互相融合的道路,這是英國文學發展歷史的顯著特色。
希望採納
Ⅵ 英語作文—英語的發展歷史
跟現代漢語一樣,本來是侵略者的語言,如今佔了上風了!
Ⅶ 介紹漢語發展或歷史等等的英語作文!急求!!!!
The Charm of Chinese Language
Chinese Language faces some challenges. As compared with English and other Latin based languages, Chinese is less popular and more difficuh for computer word processing. Some college students, wondering whether it is still one of the best languages in the world, neglect Chinese study.
Extensive research has revealed that Chinese possesses many advantages over other languages. Written Chinese is based on a set of ideogram characters. From a simple word one may obtain a wealth of information about its hidden meaning, evolution history and related phrases. Historians can decipher the damaged ancient characters carved on ox hones but no such achievement could be obtained with Latin-based languages. To express a given idea, the Chinese version is always the shortest, most accurate and most effective.
Moreover, Chinese kids learn Chinese by memorizing patterns or funny pictures which stimulate curiosity and imagination. It is well recognized that human brains work well with patterns and pattern recognition in turn promotes brain development. What' more, Chinese is also easy to learn. Many foreigners speak Chinese fluently after a few years of learning. Recently, several word processing programs have been successfully developed for Chinese language and turned out to be better than those designed for English.
Chinese is the crystallization of the splendid culture developed continuously for over 5,000 years. Many treasures remain to be explored. As China grows stronger, more and more foreigners will learn Chinese and share the invaluable treasure.
Ⅷ 手機發展史的英文介紹及中文翻譯
The history of mobile phones begins with early efforts to develop radio telephone technology and from two-way radios in vehicles and continues through emergence of modern mobile phones and associated services.
Radiophones have a long and varied history going back to Reginald Fessenden's invention and shore-to-ship demonstration of radio telephony, through the Second World War with military use of radio telephony links and civil services in the 1950s, while hand-held mobile radio devices have been available since 1973. Mobile phone history is often divided into generations (first, second, third and so on) to mark significant step changes in capabilities as the technology improved over the years.
Contents [hide]
1 Pioneers of radio telephony
2 Emergence of commercial mobile phone services
3 First generation: Cellular networks
4 Second generation: Digital networks
5 Third generation: High speed IP data networks
6 Growth of mobile broadband and the emergence of 4G
7 Patents
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
[edit] Pioneers of radio telephony
In 1908, U.S. Patent 887,357 for a wireless telephone was issued to Nathan B. Stubblefield of Murray, Kentucky. He applied this patent to "cave radio" telephones and not directly to cellular telephony as the term is currently understood.[1]
In 1910 Lars Magnus Ericsson installed a telephone in his car, although this was not a radio telephone. While travelling across the country, he would stop at a place where telephone lines were accessible and using a pair of long electric wires he could connect to the national telephone network.[2]
In Europe, radio telephony was first used on the first-class passenger trains between Berlin and Hamburg in 1926. At the same time, radio telephony was introced on passenger airplanes for air traffic security. Later radio telephony was introced on a large scale in German tanks ring the Second World War. After the war German police in the British zone of occupation first used disused tank telephony equipment to run the first radio patrol cars.[citation needed] In all of these cases the service was confined to specialists that were trained to use the equipment. In the early 1950s ships on the Rhine were among the first to use radio telephony with an untrained end customer as a user.
Two-way radios (known as mobile rigs) were used in vehicles such as taxicabs, police cruisers, and ambulances, but were not mobile phones because they were not normally connected to the telephone network. Users could not dial phone numbers from their vehicles. A large community of mobile radio users, known as the mobileers, popularized the technology that would eventually give way to the mobile phone. Originally, mobile two-way radios were permanently installed in vehicles, but later versions such as the so-called transportables or "bag phones" were equipped with a cigarette lighter plug so that they could also be carried, and thus could be used as either mobile or as portable two-way radios. During the early 1940s, Motorola developed a backpacked two-way radio, the Walkie-Talkie and later developed a large hand-held two-way radio for the US military. This battery powered "Handie-Talkie" (HT) was about the size of a man's forearm.
In 1946 soviet engineers G. Shapiro and I. Zaharchenko successfully tested their version of a radio mobile phone mounted inside a car. The device could connect to local telephone network with a range of up to 20 kilometers.
Top of cellular telephone towerIn December 1947, Douglas H. Ring and W. Rae Young, Bell Labs engineers, proposed hexagonal cells for mobile phones in vehicles.[3] Philip T. Porter, also of Bell Labs, proposed that the cell towers be at the corners of the hexagons rather than the centers and have directional antennas that would transmit/receive in three directions (see picture at right) into three adjacent hexagon cells.[4] The technology did not exist then and the frequencies had not yet been allocated. Cellular technology was undeveloped until the 1960s, when Richard H. Frenkiel and Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs developed the electronics.
During the 1950s the experiments of the pioneers started to appear as usable services across society, both commercially and culturally. In the 1954 movie Sabrina, the businessman Linus Larrabee (played by Humphrey Bogart) makes a call from the phone in the back of his limousine.
In 1957 young Soviet radio engineer Leonid Kupriyanovich from Moscow created the portable mobile phone, named after himself as LK-1 or "radiophone".[5] This true mobile phone consisted of a relatively small-sized handset equipped with an antenna and rotary dial, and communicated with a base station. Kupriyanovich's "radiophone" had 3 kilogram of total weight, could operate up to 20 or 30 kilometers, and had 20 or 30 hours of battery lifespan. LK-1 and its layout was depicted in popular Soviet magazines as Nauka i zn, 8, 1957, p. 49, Yuniy technik, 7, 1957, p. 43–. Engineer Kupriyanovich patented his mobile phone in the same year 1957 (author's certificate (USSR Patent) # 115494, 1.11.1957). The base station of LK-1 (called ATR, or Automated Telephone Radiostation) could connect to local telephone network and serve several customers.
In 1958, Kupriyanovich resized his "radiophone" to "pocket" version. The weight of improved "light" handset was about 500 grams.
In 1967, each mobile phone had to stay within the cell area serviced by one base station throughout the phone call. This did not provide continuity of automatic telephone service to mobile phones moving through several cell areas.
In 1969, a patent for a wireless phone using an acoustic coupler for incoming calls was issued in US Patent Number 3,449,750 to George Sweigert of Euclid, Ohio on June 10, 1969. Dialing a number for outgoing calls was not provided.
The concepts of frequency reuse and handoff, as well as a number of other concepts that formed the basis of modern cell phone technology, were described in the 1970s. In 1970 Amos E. Joel, Jr., another Bell Labs engineer,[6] invented an automatic "call handoff" system to allow mobile phones to move through several cell areas ring a single conversation without loss of conversation. Also Fluhr and Nussbaum,[7] Hachenburg et al.[8] , and U.S. Patent 4,152,647, issued May 1, 1979 to Charles A. Gladden and Martin H. Parelman, both of Las Vegas, Nevada and assigned by them to the United States Government.
Ⅸ 英語發展歷程
語言史學家一般把英語的歷史分為三個時期:1、古英語時期,2、中古英語時期,3、現代英語時期。
1、古英語時期(又稱盎格魯-薩克森時期公元450—1100年)
日爾曼部落在不列顛定居後,名自佔領一些地區。盎格魯人佔領了泰晤士河以北的英格蘭的大部分地區和蘇格蘭的低地,朱特人佔領了肯特郡一帶地區,撒克森人佔領了泰晤士河以南的大部分地區。各個部落建立了一些小王國,出現了英國歷史上的七國時代。直到公元830年,阿爾弗雷德大王才統一了整個英格蘭地區。由於全國長期沒有統一,所以古英語時期存在著多種方言,主要方言有四種:西薩克森語,肯特語,莫西亞語和北恩布里亞語。這四種方言都曾一度佔主導地位。西撒克森語保存下來的手搞最多。其它方言在形成英語的過程中也起過很重要的作用。
古英語的詞彙有著濃厚的日爾曼語族的特點。這主要表現為復合法是重要的構詞方法。復合詞在古英語詞彙中佔有顯著的地位。據統計,在史詩《貝奧武夫》3183行詩句中,竟有1069個復合詞。有些復合詞中不重讀部分,漸漸失去了獨立地位,而演變成了詞綴,如for-, in-, -ful 等派生法在古英語中也廣泛使用。共有二十四個名詞後綴、十五個形容詞後綴,-dom, -hood, -ship, -ness, -the, -ful,- ish 等詞綴都可溯源到古英語時期。古英語時期的詩歌有一種特殊的修辭手法,即頭韻(alliteration),由此產生的許多短語一直保留到現在,如night and main, friend or foe, a labour of love。
古英語時期有兩個重要的歷史事件,給英語詞彙帶來較大的影響。第一件事是基督教傳入英國。公元597年,一個名叫奧古斯丁的牧師從羅馬來到英國傳教。羅馬文化隨著基督教傳入了英國。與此同時,一批拉丁詞進入了英語。
第二件事是北歐人入侵英國。從公元790年開始,大批斯堪的那維亞人在英國定居。丹麥國王卡紐特還一度成為英國的君主。斯堪的那維亞人和英國人頻繁交往,所以有許多斯堪的那維亞各國的詞語進入了英語。
2、中古英語時期(公元1100—1500年)
公元1066年,諾曼人在征服王威廉率領下,橫渡英吉利海峽,在哈斯丁戰役中擊潰了盎格魯-薩克森軍隊,英王哈路德戰死,英國被征服。這在歷史上被稱為諾曼征服。從此,英國結束了分裂狀態,置於中央集權的封建統治之下。謹曼征服是英國歷史上的重要轉折點,對英語的發展有巨大的影響。
諾曼征服之後,謹曼人占據了教會和政府的一切重要職務。以後的二、三百年裡,謹曼法語成為英國的官方語言。普通人仍然講英語,但英語的文字記載卻幾乎中斷。中古英語一般右以分為兩個時期,1204年後,英語逐漸恢復主導地位。1362年英王愛德華三世首次用英語向議會致詞。十五世紀,倫敦標准方言興起。1476年,卡克斯頓把印刷術傳入英國,對英語拼寫標准化、傳播英語書面語都起了很大的推進作用。
在中古英語時期,英語歷經了劇烈變化。詞尾變化大多消失,名詞的性也消失了。詞序,虛詞和語調成了表示句子關系的主要手段。如果說古一英語與其它日爾曼語族的語言一樣是典型的綜合語,那麼到了中古英語末期,英語已逐漸具有分析語的特性。而且這個趨勢一直在繼續著。
詞彙方面的變化也是顯著的。由於諾曼法語一度是英國統治階級的語言,大批法語詞湧入英語。在政治、宗教、法律、軍事、社交、服飾、飲食等凡是與統治階級有關的一切領域都有反映。法語詞成了這些領域所用詞語的主體。從此,英語改變了運用復合法創造新詞的主要手段,並用來指稱新事物,表達新概念這一日爾曼語族語言的特徵,而向外來語敞開了大門。用直接引進借詞的方法來滿足對新詞的需要。這一變化對英語詞彙的發展影響深遠,為日後大量借詞—主要是希臘語詞、拉丁語詞—進入英語鋪平了道路。
隨著眾多的法語借詞被吸收進英語,一些法語和拉丁語的詞綴也被英語化了,成為英語構詞的重要素材。如前綴dis-, en-, inter-, mal-, non-, pre-, re-, semi-, sub-後綴如-able, -acy, -age, -al, -ancy/ency, -ate, -ory, -ance, -ant/-ent, -ician, -ise。與此同時,有些英語本族語的詞綴反而被廢棄不用了。在復合詞的構成格式方面,也吸收了法語的一些特色,例如:名詞+形容詞,副詞+過去分詞(例by-gone)。這些現象,語言學史上稱為英語的羅曼語化。這就是為什麼從譜系關繫上看,英語與德語同族,但現代英語的詞彙和法語更相近的原因。
大量的法語詞的湧入,也使英語詞彙起了詞義變化。有一些英語固有的詞被淘汰掉了,有一些雖然還存在,但詞義范圍有所改變,或者帶上特有的文體色彩和感情色彩。例如:wed在古英語中作「結婚」解,但在中古英語時期傳入了法語詞」merry」,英語中「結婚」這一意義漸漸由marry來表示,wed只用在引申意義中了;它的動名詞wedding還是一個常用的詞,但只限於指「婚禮」。帶有不同文體意義的英語本族語詞與法語並存,組成了英語中特有的同義詞群格式。
3、現代英語時期(1500-- )
到中古英語末期,英語已經確立了作為英國國語的地位。喬叟的作品證明,英語已成為一種成熟的文學語言。英語語法的簡單化過程已大體完成,拼寫走向固定,基本詞彙也已形成。總之,現代英語的基礎也已經奠定。如果說閱讀中古英語以前的英語彷彿是在讀另外一種語言,那麼十六世紀以後的英語與當代的英語的差別也就不那麼明顯了。現代英語一般以1700年為界,分為早期現代英語與後期現代英語。1700年英語規范化和標准化過程已經完成,這以後英語的語音和語法都無大的變化,只有詞彙不斷地擴大和豐富。
早期現代英語時期,對英語詞彙的影響最大的是文藝復興運動。文專職復興運動是十四世紀在義大利開始的,在十六世紀以後的兩個世紀內對英國的影響很大。在這一時期,強調研究古代希臘、羅馬文化,以對抗中世紀的封建文化。於是許多外來詞,主要是拉丁語和希臘語的詞語傳入英語,成為英語的書面語和術語詞的基本部分。同時也為英語提供了大量的同義詞。希臘和拉丁語詞進入英語後有的保留了原來的形式,如 climax, appendix, exterior, axis;有的失去了詞尾,如(擴號內為拉丁語), consult (consultare), exclusion (exclusioneum) exotic (exoticus);還有的改變了詞尾,使之更適合英語的形式,如形容詞詞尾us 變成了ous或變成al,名詞詞尾tas變為ty。
經過1640年英國資產階級革命和其後的工業革命,英帝國開始向外擴張,與世界各地的交往日趨頻繁,全球各地的語言都有語匯進入了英語,例如:harem[波斯語,商隊],bazaar[波斯語,市場],shawl[波斯語,披肩],kiosk[土耳其語,涼亭],coffee[土耳其語], nabob[印地語,大富翁],soy[日語,醬油],orang-outang[馬來語,猩猩],paddy[馬來語,稻]。
與此同時,由於與法國一直保持著密切關系,法語詞仍然源源不斷地傳入英語。這一時期傳入英語的法語詞很多保留了法語在發音和拼寫上的特徵,如protégé,被保護人,chaise兩輪馬車。
在構詞法方面,截短單詞和混成詞迅速增加。依靠母音交替構成新詞的方法被逐漸廢棄了。
在這一時期,英語被帶到了英國以外的一些地區、國家。成為那裡的通用語言。這里應特別提到的美國英語。隨著時間的推移,大西洋兩邊的盎格魯-薩克森人使用的英語盡管基本相同,但在語言,拼寫和語法方面都開始出現一些區別。
二十世紀以來,英美的科學文化有了很大的發展,各式各樣的宣傳媒介越來越普及,又發生了兩次世界大戰,從們之間的交往越來越多,英語的詞彙也隨著越來越豐富。詞彙量有了成倍的增加。英語作為一種國際的語言,是英國,美國,澳大利亞,紐西蘭,加拿大等國的國語。使用人口過三億四千萬以上,是在國際上使用最廣泛的語言,在國際交往中起著重要的作用。
經過1500年的變遷,英語從幾個日耳曼部族的語言發展為今天具有重大國際影響的語言,這固然有政治,經濟,社會的原因,但英語本身也有其它主要語言所沒有的長處。詞彙的國際性便是他的優點之一。從本單元簡略地回顧中可以看出英語善於吸收外來詞。一方面英語屬於日爾曼語族,有日爾曼語的共同詞語,另一方面又長期與法語及其它羅曼語族語言的聯系密切,同時吸收了大量古典詞語。可以說,英語把代表歐洲主要文化的詞語兼收並蓄於一身,這在歐洲各語言中間是獨特的。從語法角度看,英語詞尾變化簡單,沒有復雜的性數格變化。英語正在不斷向分析性語言的方向發展,向簡化的方向發展,英語的詞序起的作用越來越大,這也使英語比較容易學習,特別是容易入門了。
英語也有他的弱點。最容易察覺的便是拼讀不統一,造成的拼寫混亂。此外,同義詞、慣用語特別多,這固然使其表現力強,但同時也給英語學習者帶來了不少的因難。
Ⅹ 中國歷史朝代簡介(英文版)
一、秦朝
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC) was the first unified dynasty in the history of China developed by the Qin State in the Warring States Period.
譯文:秦朝(前221—前207)是由戰國時期的秦國發展起來的中國歷史上第一個大一統王朝,秦人的祖先大費是黃帝之孫顓頊的後裔,舜賜其嬴姓。
二、漢朝
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty (202-8 years ago, 25-220 years ago) was a unified dynasty after the Qin Dynasty. It was mainly divided into the Western Han Dynasty and the Eastern Han Dynasty.
譯文:漢朝(前202年-8年,25年-220年)是繼秦朝之後的大一統王朝,主要分為西漢、東漢時期,共歷29帝,享國四百零五年。
三、晉朝
Jin Dynasty
Jin Dynasty (266-420 years), a dynasty in Chinese history, was divided into two periods: the Western Jin Dynasty and the Eastern Jin Dynasty.
譯文:晉朝(266年-420年),中國歷史上的朝代,上承三國下啟南北朝,分為西晉與東晉兩個時期,其中西晉為中國歷史上大一統王朝之一,東晉則屬於六朝之一,兩晉共傳十五帝,共一百五十五年。
四、隋朝
Sui Dynasty
The Sui Dynasty (581-618 or 619) was a unified dynasty in Chinese history, which inherited the Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Tang Dynasty.
譯文:隋朝(581年—618年或619年)是中國歷史上承南北朝下啟唐朝的大一統朝代。
五、唐朝
1、Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty (618-907) was a unified Central Plains Dynasty after the Sui Dynasty. It had twenty-one emperors and enjoyed the country for 289 years.
譯文:唐朝(618年—907年),是繼隋朝之後的大一統中原王朝,共歷二十一帝,享國二百八十九年。
(10)發展歷史英文介紹擴展閱讀:
中國歷史(中國區域范圍內的歷史)
中國歷史是指中國從中華文明產生到現在的歷史。中國歷史悠久,自黃帝部落的姬軒轅(也稱公孫軒轅)時期算起約有5000年;從三皇五帝算起約有4600年;自夏朝算起約有近4100年;從中國第一次大統一的中央集權制的秦朝算起約有2240年。
中國歷經多次政權演變和朝代更迭,也曾是世界上最強大的國家,經濟、文化、科技世界矚目。中國史前時期炎黃二帝被尊奉為中華民族的人文始祖。
約公元前2070年,中國最早的國家夏朝出現。東周推進了生產力發展和社會變革,思想上形成百家爭鳴的局面。公元前221年,秦始皇建立了中國歷史上第一個統一的專制主義中央集權帝國—秦朝,西漢進一步鞏固和發展了大一統的局面。
三國兩晉南北朝時,中國陷入分裂割據局面,五胡亂華期間,異族融於中國趨勢加強,諸多民族在分立政權的沖突中逐漸匯聚。隋唐時期,中央與邊疆少數民族聯系更為密切,經濟繁榮、科技文化高度發展。
宋元時期,多元文化碰撞交融,經濟、科技發展到新的高度。明朝鼎盛時期,社會經濟高度發展,明末在江南地區出現資本主義萌芽。
19世紀中期,鴉片戰爭後中國開始淪為半殖民地半封建社會。1911年辛亥革命,推翻了帝制,確立了共和政體。袁世凱死後,中國進入軍閥割據混亂時期。
後經國民大革命,土地革命,抗日戰爭以及解放戰爭,終於在1949年成立中華人民共和國。又經1966年到1976年的文化大革命。1978年後中國開始實行改革開放政策,中國經濟快速發展,2011年中國超越日本成為世界第二大經濟體。